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  • Imiquimod hydrochloride Galanin a amino acid peptide was fir

    2021-10-02

    Galanin, a 29/30-amino-acid peptide, was first isolated in 1983 from porcine intestine by Tatemoto and collaborators [70]. It is widely distributed throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems as well as other tissues. It is involved in a wide range of physiological functions, such as modulating food intake, energy balance, insulin release and insulin sensitivity [18], [23], [46]. Noticeably, it is richly existed within the somatosensory system to modulate nociception. To date, three subtypes of galanin receptors (GalR1, GalR2, and GalR3) have been identified by molecular cloning and characterized pharmacologically in various species [12]. GalR1 and GalR2 are abundant in the rat brain, where GalR3 is at low level. GalR1 is prominently distributed in hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, brainstem, spinal cord, dorsal root ganglion (DRG), gut and muscle of rat [12], [41]. GalR2 is mainly expressed in hypothalamus, cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, cerebellum, DRG and gut [50], [63]. Also, GalR3 exists in locus coeruleus and dorsal raphe nucleus in Imiquimod hydrochloride of rodent and human [42]. All the three galanin receptors are known to couple to Gi/o receptors to inhibit adenylyl cyclase and to decrease the levels of cAMP [39], [73]. Besides, excited GalR2 may also result in hydrolysis of inositol phosphate and activation of atypical protein kinase C through the Gq pathway to enhance intracellular Ca2+ concentration [72]. These different signaling pathways may be related to the different functions of galanin.
    The interrelationship between obesity and pain sensitivity of subjects The link between obesity and pain sensitivity is likely due. Pain could increase the risk of obesity through reduced physical activity or hormonal influences. Whilst the effect of obesity on pain sensitivity of subjects is complicated. Some reports indicated that the obese people reduced their perception to pain stimuli [36], [56], [80]. However, the other reports certified that the obese people were enhanced their pain sensitivity so that they were considerably prone to having daily pain. The incidence of daily pain in the obese people is positively correlated with their body mass index (BMI) [66]. In comparison with the normal weighted, obese Imiquimod hydrochloride individuals were twice as likely to have chronic pain [51]. The severely obese individuals were more than four times as likely to have chronic pain, even after adjusting for other risk factors. Individuals in higher BMI categories also had more frequent and more severe pain, along with a higher number of painful bodily locations than those in lower BMI categories. An investigation of large community-based sample of twins found that overweight and obesity were consistently related to diagnoses of low back pain, tension-type or migraine headache, and fibromyalgia, and symptoms of abdominal pain and chronic widespread pain [47]. The correlation between BMI and daily pain become stronger in the older age group compared with other age groups. BMI and pain are reliably associated when demographic variables are controlled. The association is robust and retentive after controlling several pain conditions, including gender and age. In addition, an electrophysiological test indicated a reverse correlation between degree of overweight and the threshold of the nociceptive reflex [2]. The more overweight of subjects, the lower their nociceptive threshold was. The precise mechanisms underlying the relationship between pain and obesity remain unclear. There are a lot of plausible explanations for the association of obesity with pain threshold. First, obesity is a pro-inflammatory state and inflammatory mechanisms contribute to the development of pain. Inflammation may be part of the causal pathway [45]. Second, both obesity and chronic pain are associated with depression, and pain is worse among obese individuals with depression and anxiety. Third, the central obesity is a hallmark of the metabolic syndrome [71]. A potential unifying mechanism may be found underlying the association between metabolic syndrome with chronic pain [48]. Fourth, mechanical load is increased on weight bearing joints as seen in obesity individuals with strong association of chronic lower limb and low back pain. Fifth, the link between obesity and chronic pain may also be explained in part by the painful consequences of obesity related diabetes, peripheral artery disease, hypertension and osteoarthritis. Sixth, decreased physical activity is related to both obesity and chronic painful conditions and may be involved in their related etiology. Last, age and sex may also affect the association between to distribution of adipose tissue and pain sensitivity [56]. The ratio of subcutaneous to visceral adipose volume is higher in pubescent girls as compared with boys. Whereas postmenopausal women increase their visceral adipose volume and decrease the ratio of the subcutaneous to visceral adipose volume compared with premenopausal women. Accordingly, episodic migraine attacks increase in women of reproductive age as compared with those of postreproductive age, or as compared with men too.